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The Great Oromo Expansions, also known as the Oromo Migrations, were a series of expansions in the 1500s by the Oromo people from southern Ethiopia, namely the contemporary Borana and Guji zones, into more northerly regions of Ethiopia.^{[citation needed]}

Historiography[edit]

Because the Oromo did not keep a written record of the expansion, this article must refer to Ethiopian, Portuguese, and Arabic sources for the reasons behind the expansion. In particular, a 16th-century ethnic Gamo monk named Bahrey is the foremost source on the expansion. Written in Ge'ez, his book was called the History of the Galla (Ge'ez: ዜናሁ ፡ ለጋላ zēnahu legalla), 'Galla' being an older name that the Portuguese, Arab and Italians used to referre to Oromos by, that is now considered a pejorative. This book was written in 1593 and details the expansions from 1522 to his age. In addition to his book, further information can be gleaned from other contemporaries such as the Ethiopian monk Abba Paulos, Shihab ed-Din's Futuh al-Habasha 'Conquest of Abyssinia', João Bermudes, Francisco de Almeida, Jerónimo Lobo, and various Abyssinian royal chronicles (e.g. those of Gelawdewos, Sarsa Dengel, and Susenyos I, though that of Sarsa Dengel may have been written by Bahrey).^{[citation needed]}

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History[edit]

The Gada and Luba system[edit]

The 'gada' and 'Luba' systems are important to understand when taking the Oromo Migrations of the 1500s into consideration because they define the different time periods of expansion. The gada and Luba systems are defined by Mohammed Hassen as 'a regiment of a generation that assumes power for a period of eight years' (239)^[1]. The key difference between gada and Luba is that the gada refers to 'term of office', while Luba refers to the group of Oromo people during the given time period of a gada's leadership (239)^[1].

The Institution of Moggaasaa[edit]

One of the most prevalent reasons for the success of the Oromo people's expansions into greater Ethiopia was the institution of 'Moggaasaa', which essentially equates to a modern understanding of adoption. 'Moggaasaa' was an important cultural practice that persisted with each new gada over the course of the 16th century. The systems of adoption that made up Moggaasaa were two pronged; the first prong was a broad system of cultural adoption that allowed for non-Oromo peoples to assimilate into Oromo clans with ease and facilitate growth. The system was so effective that even when Oromo clans were conquered by non-Oromos, the two peoples often became integrated in a relatively short time frame through the system of Moggaasaa. The other form of adoption was that of foster parents adopting children, which is still prevalent in Oromo society today. The adopted child was considered to be the natural child of the parent, and lineage and inheritance would pass through the male line of the family. Even if parents were to have a natural born child after adopting a child, the adopted child would still hold priority in inheritance. The adoption of children helped to integrate peoples conquered by Oromo pastoralists within a generation.

Moggaasaa adoption policies also lead to massive diversification within Oromo populations as they expanded during the 16th century. ^[1]

The legend of Liqimssa[edit]

The legend of Liqimssa is an ancient legend stemming from the Borana sect of the Oromo peoples that is credited as having been one of the main motivations for the beginning of the Oromo expansions. Liqimssa roughly translates to 'The Swallower', and the Liqimssa was told to be a beast that consumed people one by one until there was nobody left to fight against it. It is meant to embody 'hunger', and the story represents how a powerful entity will consume all there is around it until the 'land of plenty' (in reference to the Borana homeland) is left barren and empty. The legend is interpreted by Mohammed Hassen to be the embodiment of the Christian Kingdom's growing power and influence in the regions directly south of the Oromo homelands. As Christians military colonists continued to bump up against the Oromo from the south, Oromo pastoralists, in response, began their expansions northward. ^[2]

Early expansions[edit]

The early expansions were characterized by sporadic raids by the Oromo on the frontiers of the Ethiopian kingdom. After capturing cattle and other booty, the raiding parties would quickly return to their homelands. Actual settlement of new territories would not begin until the gada of Meslé.^[3]

Mélbah (1522–1530) and Mudena (1530–1538)[edit]

According to Bahrey, the earliest Oromo expansion occurred under the Oromo luba Melbah, during the time of Emperor Lebna Dengel. He states that they invaded the neighboring Bale in the Southeast just before the invasions of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi of Adal (also known as Ahmed Gurey) in the north. These early incursions (Oromo: razzia) were limited, however, as the encroaching groups returned to their homeland near the Shebelle River after each raid. Raids continued under Mudena past the Wabi Shebelle, but these groups also returned home shortly.^[4] The reason for the Oromo's returning after their short conquests is because the Christian and Muslim kingdoms that surrounded Oromo pastoralists were deeply embroiled in jihadic wars. Instead of engaging with either kingdom directly, they targeted isolated communities that would go unnoticed, and allowed their enemies to destroy each other without Oromo intervention. ^[1]

Three Stages of Oromo Movements[edit]

By the 1530s, the Oromo pastoralists had developed a three-staged method for territorial expansion; 'scouting, night time surprise attack and settlement' (159)^[5]. The introduction of scouting teams shows that the Oromo pastoralists had quickly become accustomed to border warfare. The night time attacks that would come to follow were unceasing and relentless, stripping the community of their 'booty' and killing a large amount of the warrior class, then escaping before dawn as to avoid being followed back to their basecamps. Once the community under siege was broken down enough to be settled without resistance, the remaining peoples would quickly be integrated through Moggaasaa, having their status', material goods and general livelihoods returned to them. The remaining warriors would join the Oromo gada's troops. With each period of adoption into the fighting class, the Oromo's knowledge of the local terrain would increase drastically.

Kilolé (1538–1546)[edit]

After the death of Ahmed Gragn, Kilolé resumed his predecessor's raids, piercing further into Ethiopian territory. Aided by the weakening of both the Ethiopian Empire and Adal, he was able to raid as far as the province of Dewaro, north of Bali. Again, however, after each raid, the parties returned to their villages. Bahrey's dating might, however, be off, however, as Shihab ad-din, who wrote a decade before Ahmed Gragn's death, notes a locality named Werre Qallu, an Oromo name, in the province of Dawaro. Francisco de Almeida, however, agreed with Bahrey's dating, affirming that the Oromo first began migrating around the time of Ahmed Gragn's invasion (1527).^[6]

Bifolé (1546–1554)[edit]

During the time of luba Bifolé, the Oromo migration achieved its first major success. While all previous movements had been minor raids on neighboring provinces, under Bifolé new raids were undertaken that began to weaken Ethiopian control. All of Dewaro was pillaged and Fatagar to its north was attacked for the first time.^[7]Furthermore, according to Bahrey, the inhabitants of the pillaged areas were enslaved, becoming gebrs (Ge'ez: ገብር gabr; Amh. ግብር gebr, Tgn. ግብሪ gebri), a term referring more precisely to 'tax-paying serfs', similar to the serfs in Ethiopia during feudal times. Emperor Gelawdewos, however, campaigned in the south as a result of these attacks. According to his chronicle, the Emperor defeated the Oromo incursions and made subject to his rule those he captured, preventing further attacks for some time, with further incursions reduced to skirmishes. The initial attacks were significant, however, on a much larger and more devastating scale to the Ethiopian dynasty. Despite his reprisals, Gelawdewos was troubled and was forced to settle refugees in a town of Wej north of Lake Zway, around 1550-1.^[8]

Settlement[edit]

Meslé (1554–1562)[edit]

Meslé's time represent a fundamental change in the expansion of the Oromo. Not only were newly taken territories permanently settled by Oromo for the first time, but mules and horses began to be ridden by the first time. The adoption of horseback-riding from the north greatly increased the Oromo fighting power, putting them on par with Ethiopian troops, who were largely unequipped with firearms.^[9]In the new phase of migration adopted under Meslé, the Oromo defeated Gelawdewos's troops in Jan Amora, allowing them to pillage a number of towns. Instead of returning to their homelands, however, they stayed in the new territories. Gelawdewos campaigned against the Oromo as a result, defeating them at 'Asa Zeneb (yet unidentified), but he was nevertheless unable to drive them from the frontier provinces and continued to build the new town in Wej for new refugees.^[8]

Oromo expansions were not restricted to Ethiopian territories, however, as activities against Adal were also pursued. The forces of Nur ibn Mujahid (r. 1551/2–1567/8), the Amir of Harar, for instance, were soundly defeated by the Oromo. According to Bahrey, there had been 'no such slaughter since the Oromo first invaded.'^[8]

Harmufa (1562–1570) and Robalé (1570–1578)[edit]

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During the luba of Harmufa rule, the Oromo advanced even deeper into Ethiopian territory. With the use of horses, they were able to attack the province Amhara, and Angot. Further advances were made under Robalé, during whose time Shewa was pillaged and Gojjam attacked. For the first time, Oromo advances were devastating core Ethiopian provinces, whereas there earlier incursions were simply against frontier provinces. Despite the deeper attacks, the core provinces remained under Ethiopian control, and Emperor Sarsa Dengel carried out punitive expedition in return. One such reprisal in 1573 involved the engagement of Oromo near Lake Zway in a frontier province, whom he defeated, and taking their cattle and distributing it among his subjects who are described in his chronicle as 'becoming rich' as a result.^[10]

Adal period (1562–1579)[edit]

At the same time, Barentu Oromo groups attacked Adal Sultanate, which was weakened by its wars with the Abyssinians and Portuguese Empire leading to no potential resistance. Only a few small groups of Muslims were able to flee to Zeila and survive within the fortified city. The greater part of the Muslim population was assimilated by the Oromos.^[11]

The city Dire Dawa was originally called Dir Dhabe and used to be part of Adal Sultanate during the medieval times and was exclusively settled by Dir which is a major Somali clan and after the weakening of Adal Sultanate, the Oromos took advantage and were able to penetrate through the city and settle into these areas and also assimilate some of the local Gurgura clan.^[12]

The Hawiye and Dir clans used to be the predominant inhabitants of Hararghe Highlands in the medieval times until the weakening of Adal Sultanate the opportunist Oromos took advantage of the crippling state and decided to invade and occupy the Haraghe Highlands and assimilate the local native Somali clan population which were Jarso, Akisho, Gurgura, Nole, Metta, Oborra and Bursuk who were all sub-clans of Dir a major Somali tribe and were later confederated into Oromo tribe, the Afran Qallo clan.^[13]

Reprisals under Sarsa Dengel[edit]

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Forced to fight the Ottomans in the north of his Empire, Sarsa Dengel turned to curb the spread of Oromo in the south in the 1570s. The first mention of his actions is in his short Royal chronicle, which states that he fought a force of Borana Oromo at Lake Zway under a luba named Ambissa. Learning that, after the 1572 rains, the Oromo had taken Wej, the Emperor gathered his forces from throughout Ethiopia to form an army at Gind Beret. From there, Sarsa Dengel headed south, where he found that the Oromo had also taken Maya.^[10] Despite the size of his army, he was able to defeat the Oromo in the area, pushing them back to Fetegar, and capture a large number of cattle. Sarsa Dengel again learned in 1574 of Oromo incursions in Shewa, and the pillaging of cattle in lowland Zéma. The Emperor sent AzzajHalibo with 50 cavalry to the area, who forced the Oromo to flee sent the heads of 80 to the Emperor as trophies. Sarsa Dengel was again forced to head north with his army to confront the Ottoman-backed Bahr NegusYeshaq, but later returned to Wej in 1577-8 to fend off Oromo advances in the area.^[14] As a result of the battle in the Mojjo Valley (just east of modern Addis Ababa) against the Borana Oromo, corpses were strewn all over the surrounding countryside. The Emperor then fended off an attack in Dembiya by the Abati Oromo at a place called Weyne Deg'a and as a result of the battle, according to Bahrey, less than ten Oromo survived.^[15]

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Birmajé (1578–1586)[edit]

Despite Sarsa Dengel's military campaigns, the Oromo expansion continued to spread northward during this time. It was under luba Birmajé that the Oromo first began to use body-length ox-hide shields. These shields allowed the Oromo to resist arrows and therefore successfully defeat the Mayas. During this time period, the Oromo often came into conflict with Daharagot, one of Sarsa Dengel's commanders, who was often successful. Nevertheless, during this time, the Oromo pillaged Ar'ine in Wej, killing Ethiopian couriers in the process. Further advances were made around Lake Tana, Dembiya, and (old) Damot, which was surrounded and some of whose inhabitants were enslaved.^[15]

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Mul'eta (1586–1594)[edit]

Under luba Mul'eta a large raid (Oromo: dulaguto) was made on Gojjam south of Lake Tana. With the Ottoman situation in the north largely under control, Sarsa Dengel again took the initiative against the Oromo in the south, where he forced the Dawé (or Jawé) Oromo in Wej to flight.^[15] Bahrey praised Sarsa Dengel's campaign, stating that he 'did not act according to the custom of the kings his ancestors, who, when making war were in the habit of sending their troops ahead, remaining themselves in the rear with the pick of their cavalry and infantry, praising those who went forward bravely and punishing those who lagged behind.'^[16] Despite Bahrey's praise, Sarsa Dengel was forced to use coercion to draw troops, announced decree that anyone who failed to heed his call to arms would have his house pillaged and property confiscated.^[17]

See also[edit]

Citations[edit]

1. ^ ^abcdauthor., Hassen, Mohammed (19 May 2017). The Oromo and the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia, 1300-1700. ISBN978-1-84701-161-9. OCLC962017017.
2. ^Ghassan, Kanafani (2000). Palestine's children : returning to Haifa & other stories. Lynne Rienner. ISBN0-89410-865-4. OCLC833729428.
3. ^Pankhurst 1997, p. 301.
4. ^Pankhurst 1997, p. 281–282.
5. ^author., Hassen, Mohammed (19 May 2017). The Oromo and the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia, 1300-1700. ISBN978-1-84701-161-9. OCLC962017017.
6. ^Pankhurst 1997, p. 282.
7. ^Pankhurst 1997, p. 282-283.
8. ^ ^abcPankhurst 1997, p. 283.
9. ^Pankhurst 1997, p. 283-284.
10. ^ ^abPankhurst 1997, p. 285.
11. ^http://www.worldhistory.biz/sundries/32403-oromo-migration-and-expansion-sixteenth-and-seventeenth-centuries.html
12. ^ʻArabfaqīh, Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir (2003-01-01). The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century. Annotation: Dir, According to Huntingford a settlement which may be modern Dire Dawa. Tsehai Publishers & Distributors. p. 24. ISBN9780972317269.
13. ^Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 25. Americana Corporation. 1965. p. 255.
14. ^Pankhurst 1997, p. 286.
15. ^ ^abcPankhurst 1997, p. 287.
16. ^Pankhurst 1997, p. 287–288.
17. ^Pankhurst 1997, p. 288.

References[edit]

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• Ishikawa, Hiroki (2011). 'Northern Ethiopian Historiography during the Second Half of the Solomonic Period (1540–1769)'(PDF). Nilo-Ethiopian Studies. 16: 1–12 – via janesstudies.org.
• Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century. The Red Sea Press. ISBN9780932415196.
• Shillington, Kevin (2013). Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set. Routledge. ISBN9781135456702.

Further reading[edit]

• Mohammed Hassan, The Oromo of Ethiopia: A History 1570–1860

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• G. W. B. Huntingford, 'The Galla of Ethiopia; The Kingdoms of Kafa and Janjero North Eastern Africa Part II'